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Aẓekwan n Panteon, di Ruma, yebna-d deg tallit n tgelda n Hadrianus, yerna mazal-it deg-s aẓekwan ameqran akk deg umaḍal

Deg umezruy amaynut, Ṛuma n zik, neɣ Ṛuma taqburt, d tamedyazt tarumiyt seg wasmi i d-tbedd temdint n Ṛuma/Roma di Ṭṭelyan deg lqern wis 8 uqbel n tallit-nneɣ (UT) alamma d tagrawla n Tgelda Taṛomit n Umalu neɣ Tagelda n Ṛuman n Umalu, deg lqern wis 5 n tallit-nneɣ (T). Tettawi-d tagelda n Ṛuman (753 - 509 UT), tagduda n Ṛuman (509 - 27 UT), d tageldit n Ṛuman (27 UT - 476 UT) alamma d taggara n tageldit n umalu.[1][2]

Ṛuma n zik tebda s yiwet n tɣiwant, i d-yettwassen s umezruy ɣer 753 UT, tama n wasif Tiber deg Tmenṭawt n Ṭṭelyan. Taɣremt-nni tuɣal d tamdint d tmetti n Ṛuma, dɣa teṭṭef-d lḥekma ɣef lǧiran-is s umennuɣ n tdukliwin d tezmert taserdasit. Deg taggara, teṭṭef-d azref n Ṭṭelyan, tesdukkel-d idles agrik n wenẓul n Ṭṭelyan (Magna Grecia) d yidles n Itruskiyen, dɣa tuɣal d tazmert tameqrant deg temnaḍt n Ilel agrakal d kra n temnaḍin n Turuft. Deg tallit-is tameqqrant, teṭṭef ɣef teftist n ugafa n Tefriqt, Maṣer, Aẓul n Tuṛuft, akk-d tuget n Tuṛuft n Umalu, Ibalkanen, Krim, akk-d tuget n Timunent Talemmast, gar-asen Anatoliya, temnaḍt n deg usammar n Ilel agrakal, d kra n temnaḍin n Mesupotamiya d Waɛrabya. Tageldit-a tella gar tigelditin timeqranin akk deg umaḍal aqbur, tesɛa azal n 5 n yimelyunen n ikilumitren imkuẓen deg useggas n 117 n tallit-nneɣ,[3] s wazal n 50 ar 90 n yimelyunen n yimezdaɣen, azal n 20% n yimezdaɣen n umaḍal di tallit-nni.[4] Tamurt n Ṛuman tuɣal si tgelda n tgelda yettwafernen ɣer tegduda taklasikit, syin ɣer yiwet n tdukli taserdasit i d-yettɣimin s waṭas deg tallit n tgelda n Ṛuman.

Ṛuma n zik tettwasdukkel s waṭas ɣer tallit n umezruy akk-d tmurt n Legrik, d yidles-nsen d tmetti-nsen i yettwasnen s yisem n umaḍal agrik-rumani. Tamedyezt n Ṛuma n zik, tesɛa azal i tutlayet, ddin, tmetti, tatiknulujit, asaḍuf, tasertit, adabu, amennuɣ, taẓuri, tasekla, tadamsa d tneẓruft tatrart. Ṛuma tesseggem-d taεkemt-is, terna-d taεkemt-is, yiwen n usenfar n unabaḍ iwumi qqaren res publica "Tamsalt tadelsant", i d yellan d amedya i tegduda tatrart am Iwunak Yeddukklen d Fransa.[5] Yessaweḍ-d i kra n wayen yessewhamen deg tmusni d tneẓṛi, am lebni n waman d yiberdan deg temnaḍt meṛṛa, am wakken daɣen i yessebded isefka d tneqqiḍin yessewhamen ugar.

Amezruy

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Ṭṭelyan n zik d usnulfu n Ṛuma

Romulus d Remus ; tuccent tefka-asent ayefki-ines
Romulus d Remus ; tuccent tefka-asent ayefki-ines

Tiɣri n umezruy n tnezduɣt i d-yezzin ɣer Ruma tebda ad d-tban azal n useggas 1000 UT.[6] Tiddukla d tameqqrant tettban-d kan azal 800 UT, s iẓekwan imezwura deg iẓekwan n tewrirt n Esquilinus, d lḥiḍ n yiẓekwan d yiẓekwan deg ufella n tewrirt n Palatine i d-yellan seg tlemmast n lqern wis 8 UT. Seg azal 650 UT, Iṛumaniyen bdan ad ssufuɣen agelmim yellan gar yiɣil n Capitolium d Palatinus, anda i d-yezdeɣ ass-a umkan n Forum Romanum. 5] Deg lqern wis setta UT, Iṛumaniyen bnan Afakan n Jupiter Optimus Maximus deg Capitoline u ssenɛen-t ɣer Forum Boarium i d-yezgan gar tawrirt n Capitolium d tawrirt n Aventinus[7] (sin gar sebɛa n tiwririn n Ṛuma: Aventinus, Cælius, Capitolium, Esquilinus, Palatinus, Quirinalis, d Viminalis.).

Iṛumaniyen llan sεan yiwen n usefru i d-yeqqaren belli Romulus d Remus, d tarwa n Mars d yiwet n tgeldunt n tamdint n Albalonga[8], i d-yesbeddayen tamdint-nsen. Mi llan mazal-iten d llufanat, agellid Amulius, i yumnen belli ad ilin d aɣbel i tgelda-s, yefka lameṛ ad ten-nɣen. Ihi, ǧǧan-ten ad mmten ɣef yiri n wasif n Tiber. Isellek-iten Rebbi Tiberinus, baba-s n wasif, i d-iceggɛen yiwen n tuccent akken ad ten- tsellek; tefka-asent ayefki-ines, deg yimir-nni, d imdanen n tmurt i ten-iεawnen.Ɣer tagara, irebb-iten yiwen umeksa isem-is Faustulus armi meqqṛen. Uɣalen-d ad d-rren agellid n Ibanen, u bnan tamdint. Mi d-yeḍra kra n umennuɣ, Romulus yenɣa Remus dɣa yuɣal d netta kan i d-yesbedden tamdint. Tamnaḍt-nni anda i d-yebda lebni-ines, di tewrirt n Palatinus, tuuɣal tettwassen s yisem n Roma Quadrata ("Ruma taẓeṭṭabt"). Taqsiṭ-a tbeddu-d meqqar seg lqern wis tlata UT. Amyaru arumi Marcus Terentius Varro yura belli tamdint-a tettwabna-d deg useggas n 753 UT[9].

Taqsiṭ-nniḍen, i d-yeḥka umezruy agriki Dionysius n Halicarnassus, tenna-d belli Agellid Aeneas yewwi-d agraw n Trojans ɣer lebḥer akken ad d-sbedden Trojya tamaynut deffir Ṭṭraḍ n Trojya. Usan-d ɣef yiri n wasif n Tiber, dɣa yiwet n tmeṭṭut i d-yeddun yid-sen, i wumi qqaren Roma, tesseṛɣay lbabuṛat-nsen akken ur d-ttεawaden ara ad ruḥen. S yisem-is i semman taɣiwant-nni.[10] Amedyaz aṛumi Vergilius yessawel-d ɣef tmucuha-yagi deg usefru-ines amesbaṭli Aenēĭs.

Tagelda

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Llan isallen n umezruy ɣef lḥekma n Ṛuma sɣur igelliden, i d-yettwaseknen deg uḍrisen n lqern wis 6 UT.[11] 10]. Ula mbeɛed n usekkes n tgelda tarumaniyin, a ccɣel aqdim n rex sacrorum (agellid n tɣawsiwin timeqranin)—taseddart n ussenṭur i d-yettwaḥerzen i imḍebbren—yettwaḥrez-ed iwakken ad yeţţexdem ccɣel aqdim n lmuqeddem n ugellid. Iṛumaniyen llan ţţamnen belli tageldit-nsen d tin yeţţwafernen, s sebɛa igelliden n tmuɣliwin ur llin ara d atmaten[12].

Asmḍel n Ṛuman iban-d deg lqern wis seṭṭac UT; deg taggara-s, Ṛuma teṭṭef akal n wazal n 780 n yikilumitren imkuẓen s wazal n 35 000 n yimezdaɣ[12]. Aɣrem, Regia, yebna c. 625 UT;[12] Iṛumaniyen ssawḍen-d asnulfu n tuddsiwin-nsen timezwura n medden d Ussenṭar ɣer tallit n tgelda.[13] Ṛuma tebda ula d nettat ad tesnerni taḥkemt-is ɣef lǧiran-is latinen.

Timucuha tarumanin am " Aeneid " qqaren dakk Ilatiniyen d arraw n Aenēĭs[14]. Llan-d daɣen izerfan imgaraden n zzwaǧ d tɣiwant gar temdinin tilatiniyin—Jus Latii (Tiḥerkiwin tilatiniyin neɣ taɣdemt tilatiniyin)—d tfaskiwin n ddin i yettemcabin, i d-yeskanen daɣen yiwet n yidles i yemcabin. Ɣer taggara n lqern wis 6 UT, tuget n temnaḍt-a tella ddaw n lḥekma n Iṛumaniyen[15].

Tagduda

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Deg taggara n lqern wis setta UT, Ṛuma d waṭas n tmura n Ṭṭelyan i d-yezgan ɣer tama-s, kecmen deg yiwet n tallit n ccwal; tiɣri n umezruy d ayen i d-yesbeggnen belli yella kra n ṭṭraḍ i d-yellan deg waṭas n imukan[15]. Ɣef akken i d-nnan imeɣnasen d yimyura imeggura am Livius, Tagduda Tarumaniyt tettwabna c. 509 UT[16], asmi i d-yettwakkes ugellid aneggaru seg sebɛa igelliden n Ruma, Tarquin Amqebbar, yerna yettwasbed-d unagraw i yebnan ɣef imḍebbren yettwafernen yal aseggas d waṭas n tdukliwin n yimsefran.[17]

Asenṭar n Ṛuma

Tamezwarut tefka-d kra n yisenfaren d ussemḍel n tezmert. Imḍebbren imeqranen llan d sin n yiqonsulen, i d-yeṭṭafaren tazmert n useḍru am win n imperyum, neɣ amkan aserdasi.[18] Imqonsulen ilaq-asen ad xedmen d Senat, i yellan di tazwara d aɣersiw n useqdec n yiqeddacen, neɣ d imḍebbren. D acu kan, imqonsulen meqqren deg teɣzi d tezmert.[19]

Deg lqern wis 4 UT, Ṛuma ttuɣ-d sɣur liggul, i d-yekkren tura tazmert-nsen deg waṭlas n Ṭṭelyan nnig n Teẓgi n Po akk d Etruria. Deg 16 Yulyu 390 UT, yiwen n lɛeskeṛ n liggul s ddaw n uselway n tɣerma Brennus, yeɣleb Iṛumaniyen deg umennuɣ n Allia, dɣa ddan ɣer Ṛuma. Liggul rẓan-d tamdint, rran-tt ɣer tmes, syin rran-tt-id ɣer tewrirt n Capitolium, anda llan kra n Iṛumaniyen i d-yeqqnen, i sebɛa wagguren. Liggul rnan qeblen ad fken lehna i iṛumaniyen ma rran-asen 454 n kilogramm n ddheb. Ɣef leḥsab n tmucuha n deffir, arumi i d-yettɛassan timẓin iwala belli liggul llan ssexdamen tiɣawsiwin n lekdeb. Imir-nni, irumiyen kksen-d leslaḥ, rebḥen-asen i liggul. Amḍebbar-nsen Camillus yenna-d: "S wuzzal, mačči s ddheb, i d-teɣla Ṛuma tilelli-s".[20]

Iṛumaniyen s ttawil-nniḍen, ḥekmen ɣef yigduden-nniḍen deg tegzirt n Ṭṭelyan, gar-asen Iṭruskiyen. Amihi aneggaru i tugdut tarumanit deg Ṭṭelyan, yeḍra-d asmi Taranṭum, yiwet n tmazirt tameqqrant n Tegrikt, i d-yessawlen afus n tallelt i Pyrrhus n Epirus deg useggas n 281 UT, maca ula d taɛkemt-a ur tessaweḍ ara. Iṛumaniyen rnan-d sser n tmenɣiwin-nsen s usbeddi n tmenɣiwin tirumiyin deg temnaḍin i d-yeqqimen d tidett, s wakka i d-sbedden azemz d uḥezzeb ɣef temnaḍt-nni.[21]

Ṭṭraḍ mgal Qerṭaj

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Taddart tarumanit deg Tamezɣa (Lezzayer).

Di lqern wis 3 UT, Ṛuma temmug d yiwen wexṣim amaynut ameqqran: Qerṭaj, tazmert nniḍen meqqren deg umalu n Ilel agrakal.[22]

Ṭṭraḍ amezwaru mgal Qerṭaj yebda-d deg useggas n 264 UT, asmi i d-tessuter temdint n Messana—tigzirt n Sicilia mazal ur telli ara seddaw n tezmert n Ṛuma—tallelt n Qerṭaj deg umennuɣ-nsen d Hiero II n Syracuse. Mi d-yessawel Qerṭaj, Messana yessuter-as i Ruma ad ssufɣen Qerṭaj.

Ṛuma tekcem deg umenɣi-a imi Syracuse d Messana llan qrib aṭas ɣer temdinin tigriqin i d-teṭṭef Ṛuma di tazwara n tmurt n Ṭṭelyan n Wenẓul, dɣa Qerṭaj tessaweḍ tura ad d-teṭṭef taεkemt s wakal n Ṛuma; s ssebba-agi, Ṛuma tufi-d amek ara ad ternu tazmert-is ɣef Sicilia.[23]

Qerṭaj tella d tazmert n lebḥer, dɣa Iṛumaniyen ur sɛin ara aṭas n lbabuṛat neɣ asurif n lebḥer. Ayagi yeǧǧa abrid n rrbeḥ d ayen yuεren i Tegduda Tarumaniyt. Ɣas akken akka, deffir ugar n 20 iseggasen n ṭṭraḍ, Ruma terbeḥ mgal Qerṭaj; sbedden-d i sin agraw n talwit i d-yeqqaren belli Qerṭaj ilaq ad txelleṣ aṭas i Ṛuma.

Gar ssebbat n ṭṭrad wis sin[24] llan isekkilen imeqqranen i d-tefka Ṛuma i Qerṭaj akken i d-yemsefhamen deg talwit n ṭṭraḍ amezwaru.[25] Ṭṭraḍ yebda-d s tuṭṭfa n Ḥanibal ɣer tmurt n Hispania, dɣa yedda-d s yeεsekṛiwen-is d yifilen-is seg tmurt n Hispania armi yewweḍ ɣer idurar n Ṭṭelyan. Tazrawt n Hannibal teṭṭef ugar n 16 n yiseggasen, degs yexreb akal n Ṭṭelyan, maca di taggara, Qerṭaj tettwaɣ deg umennuɣ n Zama deg Tubeṛ n 202 UT.

Ugar n wezgen n lqern segmi i d-yellan wannect-a, Qerṭaj teǧǧa-d iman-is teḥqer. Tameẓla n Tegduda tura tettwaḥerrez ɣer tgeldiwin tihelinistiyin n tmurt n Legrik d tegrawliwin n Hispania. Maca, Qerṭaj, mi tekfa ad txelleṣ tiɣriwin n ṭṭraḍ, tenwa belli ur ilaq ara ad teqqim ddaw tezmert n Ṛuma. Tagi d yiwet n tmuɣli ur t-yeqbil ara ussenṭar n Ṛuma. Ṭṭraḍ wis kraḍ gar Ṛuma d Qerṭaj yebda mi tebda Ṛuma lgirra mgal Qerṭaj deg useggas n 149 UT.

Qerṭaj tegzem akken ilaq di tazwara, maca ur tezmir ara ad teṭṭef deg umenɣi n Scipio Aemilianus, i yesnegren tamdint akken ma tella, yerra imezdaɣ-is d aklan, yerna yewwi-d tazmert ɣef temnaḍt-nni, i yuɣalen d tawilayt n Tefriqt. Iɣerrawen-a akk d wid i d-yeǧǧan Ruma ad d-teṭṭef tiɣremt-is tamezwarut deg tmura n berra (Sicilia, Hispania d Tefriqt) d usnerni n Ruma d tazmert tameqqrant.[26] Iṛumaniyen uɣalen d agdud ameqqran n yilel agrakal.[27]

Constantinus d Tamasiḥit

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Constantinus yeṭṭef tageldit-nni deg useggas n 306 mbeɛed n talalit n Lmasiḥ. Iɛedda deg waṭas n yimenɣiyen mgal imḍebbren-nniḍen. Tazwara yeɣleb Maxentius deg 312 . Deg useggas n 313, yefka-d Aselmed n Milan (Edictum Mediolanense), i d-yefkan tilelli i imasiḥiyen akken ad d-ddmen ddin-nsen. 116] Constantinus yuɣal d amasiḥi, yessekles liman amasiḥi. D neţţa i yebdan usefru n tamasiḥit deg tgelda awkd d Turuft - d ayen i d-tfukk Taglisya Takatulikt deg tallit n tlemmast. Ifrenkiyen d Ilemaniyen ɣelbent deg useggas n 306 d 308. Deg useggas n 324, yerbeḥ-d mgal yiwen n lḥakem nniḍen, Licinius, dɣa iḥkem ɣef tgelda-nni merra, am akken tella uqbel Diocletianus. I wakken ad yesfugel timenɣiwin-is d lmeεna n tamasiḥit, yebna-d Byzantium yerna yessuqel isem-is ɣer Nova Roma (" Ṛuma tamaynut"); akken yebɣu yili, cwiṭ kan mbeɛd aya, medden semman-as Constantinopolis ("Tamdint n Constantinus"; assa isem-is Istanbul di Tturk).[28]

Aɣelluy n Tgelda Taṛumaniyt n Utaram

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Deg tagara n lqern wis 4 d lqern wis 5, Tagelda Taṛumaniyt n Utaram tekcem deg yiwet n teswiεt tameqrant i ifukk s tuɣalin n Tagelda Taṛumaniyt n Utaram. Ṛuma texṣer deg yimenɣiyen imqeddsen mgal Tgelda n Sasanniyen d Igermaniyen iweḥciyen: deg useggas n 363, imesbaṭli Julianus Amxallaf yettwanɣa deg umenɣi n Samarra, mgal Ipersiyen, amenɣi n Adrianopolis mgal Igothiyen yesɛedda tudert n umesbaṭli Valens (364 – 378)[28]. Agellid-nni i d-yusan, Theodosius I (379 - 395), yefka-d ugar n tezmert i liman amasiḥi, dɣa deffir lmut-is, tagelda tebḍa ɣef Tagelda taṛumaniyt n usammar, i iḥekmen Arcadius d Tagelda n Ṛuman n Umalu, i iḥekmen Honorius, is sin d arraw n Theodosius.[29]

Talɣa tuɣal tewɛer deg useggas n 408, deffir lmut n Stilicho, d amalway deg userdun iεerḍen ad yesdukkel tageldit yerna ad yeεreḍ ad yeḥbes aẓdam n iweḥciyen deg iseggasen imezwura n lqern wis 5. Maca userdun n tageldit yeɣli mgal aẓdam n iweḥciyen. Deg useggas n 410, tageldit teẓra Ivisiguten kkaten tamdint Ṛuma akken ad hudden tagelda.[30]

Deg lqern wis 5, Tagelda n Utaram tesεedda texser meqqren n wakal-is. Ivandalen rebḥen Tafriqt n Ugafa, Ivisiguten ṭṭfen aḥric n wenẓul n Lggul, Gallaecia wwin-tt isuebiyen, anabaḍ n Ṛuma uma yeǧǧa-d Briṭanya, dɣa Attila, anelmad n Ihunen, ihud tageldit.[31]

Iɣil Orestes ur yeqbil ara ad yeqbel tiɣawsiwin n "imdukkal" ibarbariyen, tura d nutni i d aḥric ameqran n lɛesker, dɣa yeɛreḍ ad ten-yessufeɣ si Ṭṭelyan. Ur yefreḥ ara deg waya uselway n lbarbar, Odoacer; yenɣ Orestes, yenɣa-t, yeṭṭef Ravenna, yerna yekkes ɣef ukersi n tgeldit Romulus Augustus, mmi-s n Orestes. Tadyant-a n 476 tettwaḥsab d taggara n Taɣawsa taqburt d tazwara n Tallit-Tanammast.[32] Aɣlal arumi d uselway n zik Julius Nepos ikemmel ad iḥkem d aselway seg Dalmatia ula deffir n usekcem n Romulus Augustus alamma d lmut-is deg 480. Kra n imseḍrayen ttwalin-t d agellid aneggaru n Tgelda n Umalu deg umkan n Romulus Augustus.[33]

Seld 1200 iseggasen n tlelli d wazal n 700 iseggasen d tazmert tameqqrant, tageldit n Ṛuma deg umalu tekfa.[34] Tagelda n usammar teqqim azal n 1000 n yiseggasen deffir n tuɣalin n tdukli-ines n umalu, dɣa tuɣal d tagelda tamasiḥit tameqrant deg tallit n tlemmast.

Deg lqern wis 6, Justinianus yerbeḥ-d tamnaṭ n Ṭṭelyan seg Ostrogoths, Tafriqt n Ugafa seg Ivandalen, d wenẓul n Hispania seg Ivisiguten. Maca deg kra n yiseggasen kan segmi yemmut Justinianus, imukan n Ṛuma n usammar (Byzantin) deg Ṭṭelyan, rẓan s waṭas sɣur Ilembardiyen i d-yeqqimen ɣer temnaḍt-nni.[35] Deg usammar, ɣef lǧal n waṭṭan d yimenɣiyen mgal Tgelda n Sassaniyen n Fars, Iṛumaniyen n Byzantin llan ttwaggzen s usnerni n iɛraben. Iɛraben s lemɣawla ṭṭfen-ed Surya, rnan Armenya d Maṣer deg yimenɣiyen mgal i ibyzantiyen, dɣa s lemɣawla-nni kan, ssawḍen-d ad sbedden azaglu-nsen ɣer Constantinopolis.[36][37] Deg lqern-nni i d-yusan, Iɛraben ṭṭfen anẓul n Ṭṭelyan d Sicilia.[38] Deg umalu, imezdaɣ islawiyen kecmen ɣer wakal n ibalkanen.

Maca, Iṛumaniyen n Byzantin, ssawḍen ad ḥebsen taεkemt n iɛraben ɣer wakal-nsen deg lqern wis 8 yerna, seg lqern wis 9, rran-d kra n wakal-nni i ṭṭfen.[36][39] Deg useggas n 1000, tagelda n usammar, s ddaw n Basil II, teṭṭef-d tamurt n Bulgarya d tmurt n Armenya.[40] 20 n yiseggasen n umennuɣ n daxel d tnezzutin tiṭurkiyin i d-yessawḍen tageldit Alexios I Komnenos ad d-yessuter tallelt i tgeldiwin n Turuft n umalu deg useggas n 1095. Tigeldiwin n Turuft n umalu rran-d awal s yimenɣiyen imqeddsen. Ayagi yewwi-d ɣer Lqerḥ n Constantinopolis deg 1204 sɣur wid akk i yettekkan deg yimenɣiyen imqeddsen tis ṛebεa.

Tageldit taṛumaniyt n usammar (Byzantin) teɣli asmi i d-yeṭṭef Meḥmed Amesbaṭli Constantinopolis deg 29 Mayu 1453.[41].

Tiɣriwin

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  1. ↑ "ancient Rome | Facts, Maps, & History". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  2. ↑ a. Ussan-nni n tidett mxallafen, ɣef wakken ma yella yiwen yeṭṭafar anagraw arumi, tasnakt tatrart, neɣ tiktiwin yemgaraden ɣef wacu n tegnatin i d-yesskanen taggara.
  3. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 125. doi:10.2307/1170959. ISSN 0145-5532. JSTOR 1170959.
  4. ↑ Scheidel, Walter; Saller, Richard P.; Morris, Ian (2007). The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5217-8053-7. OL 16929915W.
  5. ↑ Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 793. ISBN 978-0-6741-7728-4.; Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave. Manchester University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7190-4942-2.; Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution. NYU Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8147-8005-3.
  6. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 519.
  7. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 31.
  8. ↑ Boatwright 2012, pp. 31–32.
  9. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 32.
  10. ↑ Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, The Ancient Roman World p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).
  11. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 35. "Rex, d awal n tlatinit i d-yettakken anamek i ugellid, i d-yettbanen deg sin n yisenfaren n lqern wis setta, yiwen deg-sen d aḍris i d-yekkan seg uẓekwan n Vulcan, wayeḍ d yiwen n uẓekwan n uɣebbaṛ i d-yufan deg Regia".
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 et 12,2 Boatwright 2012, p. 36.
  13. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 37.
  14. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 39.
  15. ↑ 15,0 et 15,1 Boatwright 2012, p. 42.
  16. ↑ Cornell 1995, pp. 215 et seq.
  17. ↑ Matyszak 2003, pp. 43–44.
  18. ↑ Adkins & Adkins 1998, pp. 41–42.
  19. ↑ Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). "Rome: The Roman Republic". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
  20. ↑ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Camillus, XXIX, 2.
  21. ↑ Haywood 1971, pp. 350–358.
  22. ↑ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 25–26; Miles 2011, pp. 175–176.
  23. ↑ "Cassius Dio – Fragments of Book 11". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
  24. ↑ Labberton, Robert Henlopen. New historical atlas and general history. p. 35.
  25. ↑ Caspari, Maximilian Otto Bismarck (1911). "Punic Wars § The Interval between the First and Second Wars" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 850.
  26. ↑ Haywood 1971, pp. 376–393; Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). "Rome: The Punic Wars". Washington State University. Retrieved 22 March 2007.
  27. ↑ Bury, John Bagnell (1889). History of the Later Roman Empire. MacMillan and Co.; Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires Archived 1 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine by Richard
  28. ↑ 28,0 et 28,1 Gibbon, Edward (1906). "Chapter XVII" (Online version). In Bury, J.B. (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Fred de Fau and Co.; Constantine I (306–337 AD) by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 8 January 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2007.
  29. ↑ "Un dittico imperiale: Oriente e Occidente dopo il 395" (in Italian). Retrieved 12 August 2023.
  30. ↑ Lapham, Lewis (1997). The End of the World. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-3122-5264-1. pp. 47–50.
  31. ↑ Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 8, §2.; [29] Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 6, §4.; [30] Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 6, §3.; [31] Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 9.; "The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe". University of Calgary. August 1996. Archived from the original on 12 August 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2007.; Duiker & Spielvogel 2001, p. 157
  32. ↑ "Roman Emperors – DIR Romulus Augustulus". www.roman-emperors.org. 23 July 2022.; Romulus Augustulus (475–476 AD) – Two Views by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 26 August 1997. Retrieved 22 March 2007.
  33. ↑ Mathisen, Ralph A. (8 February 1998). "Roman Emperors – DIR Nepos".
  34. ↑ Durant & Durant 1944, p. 670.
  35. ↑ Duiker & Spielvogel 2001, p. 347.
  36. ↑ 36,0 et 36,1 Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). "The Byzantine Empire". Washington State University. Yettwasekles-d seg umezwaru deg 24 fuṛar 1999.
  37. ↑ Bray, R.S. (2004). Armies of Pestilence. James Clarke & Co. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-2271-7240-7.
  38. ↑ Kreutz, Barbara M. (1996). Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1587-8.
  39. ↑ Duiker & Spielvogel 2001, p. 349.
  40. ↑ Basil II (AD 976–1025) by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 22 March 2007.
  41. ↑ Mehmet II by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 3 April 2007.
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