C++

C++
langage de programmation orienté objet (fr) , langage de programmation multi-paradigme (fr) , langage procédural (fr) , langage de programmation fonctionnel (fr) , langage de programmation générique (fr) , tutlayt n usihel, langage à forme libre (fr) d langage compilé (fr)
Isefka
Adu-smil n	langage compilé (fr)
Azemz n ubeddi d unulfu	1983
Asemres	Programmation système (fr)
Nom en kanas (fr)	シープラスプラス
Développé par (fr)	Bjarne Stroustrup (fr)
Paradigme (fr)	programmation orientée objet (fr) , programmation fonctionnelle (fr) , programmation procédurale (fr) , généricité (fr) d programmation à paradigmes multiples (fr)
Conçu par (fr)	Bjarne Stroustrup (fr)
Akufi n tengalt taɣbalut	https://github.com/cplusplus/draft
Identifiant de version logicielle (fr)	C++23, C++98, C++03, C++11, C++14, C++17 d C++20
Asmel web unṣib	isocpp.org d open-std.org…
Hashtag (mul)	cpp d cplusplus
Yettubeggen s	Turing-complet (fr)
Type MIME (fr)	text/x-c++src d text/x-c++hdr
Organisme de normalisation (fr)	Organisation internationale de normalisation (fr) d Commission électrotechnique internationale (fr)
Système de typage (fr)	typage statique (fr) , système nominatif de types (fr) d partial inference typing (en)

Alugu n C++.

Tutlayt n usihel C++ Yesnulfa-tt-id Bjarne Stroustrup deg useggas n 1979 deg Bell Laboratories. Deg tazwara, semman-as "C s tserkam", acku tella d asiɣzef n tutlayt C s tmerna n tserkam. Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem-is ɣer C++. Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882.

C++ tella d tutlayt n usihel i d-yufraren ɣef C acku terni-yas :

• Asihel s tɣawsiwin
• Asihel s tserkam
• Asihel imcettel (Generic Programming) s templates
• Asefrek n tkatut s ufus

Tutlayt-a tettwaseqdec deg :

Asnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n unagraw d usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, arnu asnulfu n wuraren akked deg uḥric n tussna n isefka d tigzi taragmawant. arnu daɣen deg iseggasen-a ineggura C++ nezmer ad t-nesseqdec deg weḥric n Web seg tama n umsaɣ s tallelt n WebAssembly.

Amezruy

Tutlayt n usihel C++ tella d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin akk deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg wasmi i d-tlul deg useggas n 1979 ar ass-a, C++ temhaz-d s waṭas, tessaweḍ ad tili d allal agejdan deg waṭas n yiḥricen : seg usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud ar usihel n yiselkimen, seg wuraren ar tigzi taragmawant. Aḍris-agi ad d-yezzuɣɣer amezruy-is, amhaz-is, d wazal-is deg yal tallit n tselkimt.

1. Tilalin : Seg C ar C s Tserkam (1979–1983)

1.1 Asenti

Deg useggas n 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, yiwen n unelmad n PhD deg Bell Laboratories (AT&T) deg Marikan, yebda yettmahal ɣef usnulfu n tutlayt tamaynut. Stroustrup yella yesseqdac s tutlayt C, maca yebɣa ad yernu fell-as tarrayin n usihel s tɣawsiwin (object-oriented programming) i d-yellan seg tutlayt Simula.

Iswi-ines amezwaru d ad yessers tamṣukt n usihel s tserkam ɣef tutlayt C, i wakken ad yessers isefka d twsitin n tserkam deg yiwen n umkan. Deg tazwara, isem n tutlayt-a yella d "C with Classes" (C s Tserkam).

1.2 Ismawen d Tarrayin Timezwura

Deg tallit-a tamezwarut, Stroustrup yerni-yas i C :

• Tiserkam (classes) s tmahilin-nsent (member functions)
• Tukkest (inheritance) : taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen
• Timselɣutin (references)
• Asenqed n tewsatin (type checking) iǧehden

Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem n tutlayt seg "C with Classes" ar "C++". Azamul ++ deg C yettawwi-d anerni n wazal s yiwen, d tinnaṭ i d-yemmalen belli C++ d asiɣzef n C.

2. Tallit n Umhaz Amezwaru (1983–1998)

2.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut

Deg tallit-a, C++ terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin :

1985 : Tiffeɣ-d Tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s uzwel "The C++ Programming Language" n Stroustrup. Tizeɣt-a tesɛa tiserkam, tukkest, tiseɣnin tuhlistin, d tseɣnin n tserkam (member functions).

1989 : Yerna-yas agettalɣa (polymorphism) s twsitin timenyafin, akwbal (encapsulation) s wawalen private, public, d protected, d tamadwant (abstraction).

1990 : Timerna n "templates" i usihel imcettel (generic programming), tisuraf (exceptions) i uselmed n tuccḍiwin, d ismawen n tallunin (namespaces).

2.2 C++ deg Tselkimt n Tallit-a

Deg tallit-a, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

• Usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud am Windows d Unix
• Usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen
• Usnulfu n isiɣẓanen n tnarit
• Asihel n yinagrawen n taffa n isefka

C++ tella d tutlayt i yesɛan tanezmart meqqren deg uselkem, acku tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut s ufus, s useqdec n new d delete.

3. Tallit n Tizeɣt (1998–2011)

3.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut : C++98

Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882:1998. Tizeɣt-a tesbedd ilugan n tutlayt s wudem unṣib, tefka-yas i C++ tamṣukt tusliḍt i yettwaqbalen deg umaḍal meṛṛa.

C++98 tesɛa :

• STL (Standard Template Library) : tamkarḍit n temudmin timcettelt (generic templates) am vector, list, map, set
• allusen (iterators) i ulḥu deg yimgraden
• Tiwsatin timatuyin (algorithms) am sort, find, for_each
• Tusrufin (exceptions) s try, catch, throw

3.2 C++03

Deg useggas n 2003, yeffeɣ-d lqem wis sin n tizeɣt (ISO/IEC 14882:2003). Lqem-a ur yerni ara aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin, maca yesseɣti kra n tuccḍiwin yellan deg C++98, yesbedd ilugan s wudem uḥric.

3.3 C++ deg Tallit-a

Deg tallit n 1998 ar 2011, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

• Usnulfu n wuraren : s tallelt n imuturen n wuraren am Unreal Engine, CryEngine
• Usihel n yiselkimen : afreɣẓan, inuḍaf, anagraw n wammud
• Tasnallunt d tmhelt n tkeṛṛusin
• Taɣult n tedrimt : inagrawen n lbanka d tenzzut

4. Tallit n Imaynuten n C++ (2011–Ass-a)

4.1 C++11 : Tagrawla Tameqqrant

Deg useggas n 2011, teffeɣ-d C++11, i yettwaḥsben d tagrawla tameqqrant deg umezruy n tutlayt-a. C++11 terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin i yessahlen asihel :

• auto : tawsit yettwafra s wudem awurman
• Lambda expressions : tiwsitin tuffirin i yettwarun deg umkan
• Range-based for : tineddict ɣef yal aferdis n umegrad
• Move semantics : asmutti n tɣawsiwin bla anɣal, i usnerni n tmellit
• Smart pointers (unique_ptr, shared_ptr) : isewwaṛen iuḥricen i yettḥerzen takatut s wudem awurman
• constexpr : azalen yettwaḥesben deg wakud n lqem
• nullptr : azal amaynut i usewwaṛ ilem, yettbeddilen NULL
• enum class : inumriyen iǧehden

4.2 C++14

Deg 2014, yeffeɣ-d lqem i d-yernan :

Generic lambdas : lambdas s tewsatin timcettelt, akeed "Return type deduction" i twsitin, "constexpr" iǧehden, arnu timudmin s wudem amutti "Variable templates".

4.3 C++17

Deg 2017, C++17 terna :

if constexpr : tiwtilin deg wakud n lqem, optional, variant, any : tiwsatin n isefka imatuyen, Fold expressions : i timudmin, Parallel algorithms : tiwsatin timatuyin s uselmed n ukala afessas.

4.4 C++20

Deg 2020, C++20 terna tɣawsiwin timeqranin :

Concepts : tilisa ɣef timudmin, i wakken ad yili useqqer n tuccḍiwin drus, Modules : anagraw amaynut n uskecm n ifuyla, yettbeddilen #include, Coroutines : tiwsitin i izemren ad ḥebsent rnu ad kemmlent, Ranges : allalen imaynuten n umahil ɣef yimgraden, <format> : tamṣukt n usformat am Python, Kraḍ n iberdan n userwes (<=>)

4.5 C++23

Deg 2023, C++23 terna :

std::expected : i uselmed n tuccḍiwin bla tasureft, Deducing this : i twsitin n tserkam.

Tamṣukt n Wahil C++

Yal ahil n C++ yesɛa tamṣukt taseddast. Aḥric amezwaru i yessefken ad yili deg yal ahil d tawsit n tesɣent "main()", d nettat i d iḥdar agejdan amezwer n uselkem.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
    cout << "Azul, a ddunit!" << endl;
    return 0;
}

Deg uḍris-agi :

#include <iostream> : d taladna n uzarsekkar i d-yesskecmen tamkarḍit n unekcum d usuffeɣ.

using namespace std; : d alɣu i d-yemmalen belli nseqdac tallunt n yismawen (namespace) std.

int main() : d tawsit n tesɣent tagejdant ideg yebda uselkem.

cout : d allal n usuffeɣ ɣer wegdil.

return 0; : d tinnaṭ n tuɣalin i d-yemmalen belli ahil yemmed akken iwata.

Tewsatin n Isefka d Imuttiyen

1 Tewsatin tigejdanin

C++ tesɛa aṭas n tewsatin n isefka tigejdanin :

Tawsit	Aglam	Tiddi
int	Ummid (entier)	4 ibitten
float	Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel simple précision)	4 ibitten
double	Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel double précision)	8 ibitten
char	Asekkil	1 n ubit
void	Ulac	0

2 Imuttiyen

Amutti d isem i yettunefken i wadeg di tkatut (mémoire) ideg yettwasekles wazal. Asebded (tabadut) n umutti yettili s tewsit, isem, d wazal amezwaru :

int amḍan = 10;
double azal = 3.14;
char asekkil = 'A';
bool tidett = true;

3 Ismawen d Yilugan-nsen

Ismawen n yimuttiyen deg C++ ilaq ad ḍefren ilugan-agi :

• Zemren ad bdun s usekkil neɣ s ujerriḍ n wadda (_)
• Ur zmiren ara ad bdun s umḍan
• Ur zmiren ara ad sqedcen awalen yettwaḥerzen (reserved keywords)
• C++ txedem amgired gar usekkil ameqran d umeẓyan

4 Imahalen

Imahalen deg C++ d izamulen i yettunefken i tmhelt ɣef wazalen.

4.1 Imahalen imsnamḍanen

Azamul	Tamhelt	Amedya
+	Timernit	5 + 3 = 8
-	Tukkssit	5 - 3 = 2
*	Asegat	5 * 3 = 15
/	Taẓunt	6 / 3 = 2
%	Tasagert	7 % 3 = 1

4.2 Imahalen n usemyif

Azamul	Anamek
==	Yugda (égal à)
!=	Ur yugdi ara
<	Amazdar
>	Imineg
<=	Amazdar neɣ yugda
>=	Imineg neɣ yugda

4.3 Imahalen imeẓẓulen

Azamul	Anamek
&&	D (ET logique)
!	Ur (NON logique)

4.4 Imahalen n usemdukel

int x = 10;    // Asemdukel asentan
x += 5;        // x = x + 5
x -= 3;        // x = x - 3
x *= 2;        // x = x * 2
x /= 4;        // x = x / 4

5. Tamṣukt n Usenqed

5.1 Tiwtilin

if / else if / else

if (azal > 100) {
    cout << "Azal meqqeṛ" << endl;
} else if (azal > 50) {
    cout << "Azal alemmas" << endl;
} else {
    cout << "Azal meẓẓi" << endl;
}

switch

switch (ass) {
    case 1: cout << "Aram" << endl; break;
    case 2: cout << "Aram" << endl; break;
    case 3: cout << "Aram" << endl; break;
    default: cout << "Ass nniḍen" << endl;
}

5.2 Tineddicin

Tineddict for

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
    cout << i << " ";
}

Tineddict while

int azal = 0;
do {
    cout << azal << endl;
    azal++;
} while (azal < 5);

Tinnaḍin n usenqed n tneddict

break : ad teffeɣ seg tneddict neɣ seg switch

continue : ad tezgel tikkelt-a, ad teddu ɣer tikkelt i d-iteddun

6. Tiseɣnin

6.1 Asebded n Tasɣent

Tasɣent deg C++ tesɛa :

• Tawsit n tuɣalin
• Isem n tasɣent
• Iɣewwaṛen
• Tafekka s tinnaḍin

tawsit_n_tuɣalin isem_n_tasɣent(iɣewwaṛen) {
    // tinnaḍin
    return azal;
}

6.2 Amedya

int smerni_sin(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

// Aseɣṛi (appel)
int ugmuḍ = smerni_sin(5, 3);  // ugmuḍ = 8

6.3 Aɛeddi n Yiɣewwaṛen

C++ tesɛa kraḍ n tarrayin n uɛeddi n yiɣewwaṛen :

• Aɛeddi s wazal (pass by value) : ad yettwaneɣl wazal
• Aɛeddi s tamselɣut (pass by reference) : ad yettwafk unekcam srid ɣer umutti
• Aɛeddi s usewwaṛ (pass by pointer) : ad yettwafk wazal n tkatut

// S wazal
void s_wazal(int x) { x = x + 1; }

// S tamselɣut
void s_tamselɣut(int& x) { x = x + 1; }

// S usewwaṛ
void s_usewwaṛ(int* x) { *x = *x + 1; }

7. Isewwaṛen d Timselɣutin

7.1 Isewwaṛen (Pointers)

Asewwaṛ d amutti i yessekles adɣar (ideg/tansa) n umutti nniḍen di tkatut.

int azal = 42;
int* asewwaṛ = &azal;  // asewwaṛ yesseklas adɣar n "azal"

cout << *asewwaṛ << endl;  // ad yesken 42

Imahalen imenza :

• & : amahal n tansa (address-of operator)
• * : amahal n tukksa n tmselɣut (dereference operator)

7.2 Timselɣutin

Tamselɣut (reference) d isem nniḍen i umutti yellan. Ur yezmirt ara ad ibeddel ɣer umutti nniḍen :

int azal = 10;
int& tamselɣut = azal;  // tamselɣut d isem nniḍen i "azal"
tamselɣut = 20;          // azal yuɣal 20

8. Tifelwiyin d Izraren

8.1 Tifelwiyin

Tafelwit d tagrumma n wazalen n tewsit yiwen, yettwaskelsen deg tkatut s wudem amezdi

int tifelwiyin[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

// Anekcum ɣer uferdis
cout << tifelwiyin[0] << endl;  // 10
cout << tifelwiyin[4] << endl;  // 50

8.2 Tifelwiyin s uget n tsektiwin

int tafelwit[3][4] = {
    {1, 2, 3, 4},
    {5, 6, 7, 8},
    {9, 10, 11, 12}
};

8.3 Izraren

Deg C++, azrar (string) yezmer ad yili :

// Azrar s tewsit C
char azrar_c[] = "Azul";

// Azrar s tewsit C++ (tamkarḍit <string>)
#include <string>
string azrar_cpp = "Azul, a ddunit!";

9. Asihel s Tɣawsiwin

Asihel s tɣawsiwin (OOP) d tarrayt n usihel i yessebdaden ahil ɣef tɣawsiwin i yesɛan isefka d tarrayin.

9.1 Taserkemt

Taserkemt d tamudemt (template) i d-yessnulfuyen tiɣawsiwin. Tesɛa :

Imuttiyen n tserkemt (imuttiyen-ines / imyaren-ines)

Tiwsatin n tserkemt (tiseɣnin-ines / tarrayin-ines)

class Aɣersiw {
private:
    string isem;
    int leɛmeṛ;

public:
    // Amakras (constructor)
    Aɣersiw(string i, int l) {
        isem = i;
        leɛmeṛ = l;
    }

    // Tawsit n tserkemt
    void sken() {
        cout << "Isem: " << isem << ", Leɛmeṛ: " << leɛmeṛ << endl;
    }

    // Asemmatay (destructor)
    ~Aɣersiw() {
        cout << "Aɣersiw yettwakkes" << endl;
    }
};

9.2 Taɣawsa

Taɣawsa d tummant n tserkemt :

int main() {
    Aɣersiw aɣyu1("Muc", 3);
    aɣyu1.sken();  // Isem: Muc, Leɛmeṛ: 3
    return 0;
}

9.3 Akwbal

Akwbal d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n tserkemt s useqdec n wawalen :

private : anekcum kan seg twsitin n tserkemt

public : anekcum seg yal amkan

protected : anekcum seg tserkemt akked tserkam i d-yufraren seg-s s uzellum

9.4 Tukkest

Tukkest tettajǧa taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen :

class Amɣar : public Aɣersiw {
private:
    string tawuri;

public:
    Amɣar(string i, int l, string t) : Aɣersiw(i, l) {
        tawuri = t;
    }

    void sken_tawuri() {
        cout << "Tawuri: " << tawuri << endl;
    }
};

Tawsitin n tukkest deg C++ :

• Tukkest tasufut
• Tukkest tusgit
• Tukkest s waṭas n yiswiren

9.5 Agettalɣa (Polymorphism)

Agettalɣa d amenzay i yettǧǧan tiwsitin yemgaraden ad sɛunt isem yiwen maca ad xedmen tigawin yemgaraden.

Tiseɣnin tuhlisin:

class Aɣersiw {
public:
    virtual void imesli() {
        cout << "Imesli n uɣersiw" << endl;
    }
};

class Amcic : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout << "Miyaw!" << endl;
    }
};

class Aydi : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout << "Waw!" << endl;
    }
};

9.6 Tamadwant

Tamadwant d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n daxel, ad yesken kan ayen ilaqen i useqdac :

class Talɣa {
public:
    virtual double tajumma() = 0;  // Tasɣent tadwant tamenyafit
};

10. Asihel Amatu s Leqwaleb

Leqwaleb neɣ "Templates" ttajǧan ad naru tangalt ara ixedmen s uget n tewsatin n isefka bla ma naru-tt yal tikkelt.

10.1 Tiseɣnin n Leqwaleb

template <typename T>
T ameqqran(T a, T b) {
    return (a > b) ? a : b;
}

// Aseqdec
int x = ameqqran(5, 3);       // x = 5
double y = ameqqran(3.14, 2.71);  // y = 3.14

Tiserkam Timatuyin

template <typename T>
class Akufi {
private:
    T iferdisen[100];
    int uṭṭun;

public:
    Akufi() : uṭṭun(0) {}

    void rnu(T azal) {
        iferdisen[uṭṭun++] = azal;
    }

    T kkes() {
        return iferdisen[--uṭṭun];
    }
};

11. Asefrek n Tkatut

11.1 Aḥeṛṛi Asmussaw

C++ tettaǧǧa aḥeṛṛi asmussaw n tkatut s wawalen new d delete :

// Aḥeṛṛi n wazal yiwen
int* p = new int;
*p = 42;
delete p;

// Aḥeṛṛi n tfelwit
int* arr = new int[10];
delete[] arr;

11.2 Isewwaṛen Uḥricen

Deg imaynuten n C++, llan isewwaṛen uḥricen i yettḥerzen tkatut s wudem awurman :

#include <memory>

// unique_ptr : yezmer kan yiwen n usewwaṛ ad yesɛu taɣawsa
unique_ptr<int> p1 = make_unique<int>(42);

// shared_ptr : aṭas n isewwaṛen zemren ad bḍun taɣawsa
shared_ptr<int> p2 = make_shared<int>(100);

12. Asefrek n Tsuraf

Tsuraf d tarrayt n usefrek n tuccḍiwin deg wakud n uselkem :

#include <stdexcept>

double beṭṭu(int a, int b) {
    if (b == 0) {
        throw invalid_argument("Ur yezmir ara ad yebḍu ɣef 0");
    }
    return (double)a / b;
}

int main() {
    try {
        double ugmuḍ = beṭṭu(10, 0);
    } catch (const invalid_argument& e) {
        cout << "Tuccḍa: " << e.what() << endl;
    }
    return 0;
}

Imawalen imenza :

try : ɛreḍ tangalt i izemren ad teg tuccḍa

throw : zzuzer tasureft

catch : ṭṭef tasureft

13. Tamkarḍit Tizeɣtant n Temudmin (STL)

STL (Standard Template Library) d tagrumma n tserkam d twsitin timatuyin i yettwasqedcen aṭas deg C++.

13.1 Imagbaren

Amagbar	anamek-is
vector	Tafelwit tamussawt (dynamic array)
list	Tabdart tamsuddast (doubly linked list)
map	Amawal n tsuraf (key-value pairs)
set	Tagrumma n wazalen ur nelli ara d imenza
queue	Adras FIFO
stack	Akufi LIFO

13.2 Imedyaten

#include <vector>
#include <algorithm>

vector<int> imḍanen = {5, 2, 8, 1, 9};

// Af ran (sorting)
sort(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end());

// Anadi (searching)
auto it = find(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end(), 8);

13.3 Tineddicin

Tineddicin d allalen i yettǧǧan ad nelḥu deg yimagbaren :

for (auto it = imḍanen.begin(); it != imḍanen.end(); ++it) {
    cout << *it << " ";
}

13.4 Tiwsatin Timatuyin (Algorithms)

#include <algorithm>

// Af ran
sort(v.begin(), v.end());

// Anadi
auto it = find(v.begin(), v.end(), 42);

// Asmekti n yal aferdis
for_each(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int x) { cout << x << " "; });

Taggrayt

Tutlayt n usihel C++ d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg usihel n yinagrawen n wammud ar usnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n tigzi taragmawant, C++ tezmer ad tili deg yal aḥric.

Tamudemt-agi n tutlayt-a tbedd ɣef :

Tazmert : C++ tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut d uselkem

Taflest : tawala n yilɣa imaynuten (C++11 ar C++23)

Taseddi : tanezmart deg uselkem

Tagttilɣa : tettaǧǧa asihel s tɣawsiwin, asihel imcettel(amatu), d usihel amesɣan

I useqdac amaynut, yewwid ad yebdu s yilugan tseddast, syin ad yelmed asihel s tɣawsiwin, rnu ad yesnerni tamusni-is s templates d STL.